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While criminal behavior is an response to societal institutions and values, it is not explained by those societal institutions and values since all members of the society do not engage in criminal behavior. Criminal behavior is learned (rather than invented, imitated or rooted in individual constitution). The process of learning criminal behavior by association with criminal and anti-criminal patterns involves all of the mechanisms that are involved in any other learning.
Criminal behavior is learned in social interaction (through the process of interpersonal communication). The specific direction of motives and drives is learned from definitions of the legal codes as favorable or unfavorable. A person becomes criminal when the social interactions in which they participate produce a preponderance of The principal part of the learning of criminal behavior occurs within intimate personal groups (primary groups such as family, friendship networks, peer groups). As criminal behavior is learned, the learning process includes
Learning motives, drives, rationalizations, and attitudes is more important than learning techniques to engaging in criminal behavior because it produces a willingness to engage in crime. Interpersonal associations vary in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity. Most individuals are not criminals because their anti-criminal associations are greater in frequency, duration, and intensity than their criminal associations.
BECOMING A HOUSE PROSTITUTE BARBARA HEYL House Organization
Basic orientation to prostitution learned from
Learning rules of the house
BECOMING A MARIHUANA USER Steps in defining marihuana smoking as a pleasurable experience
KEN LEVI
Independent hit man lacks the justifications available to syndicate killers Organization as a Profession to neutralize stigma of murder
Learning to kill involves overcoming the disorientation of confronting an "innocent person" who is usually unknown to the hit man Developing a "cold heart" in killing situations Maintaining detachment from victims Create an instrumental orientation toward the hit
REINFORCEMENT THEORY RONALD AKERS GENERAL PRINCIPLES Most behavior is learned according to the principles of operant conditioning.
Operant behavior has a functional relationship with stimulus events. It is developed, maintained, and strengthened (or the reverse) depending on the feedback received from the environment. The basic process in operant learning is that stimuli following a behavior determine the probability of its future occurrence. The stimuli following a behavior take the form of either reinforcement or punishment Reinforcement – a response-contingent stimulus has the effect of strengthening the probability of the response
Punishment
See overhead on reinforcement/punishment Given two alternative acts, the one that is reinforced the most, more frequently, and with the higher probability will be maintained. Learning is most dramatic and effective when alternative acts are incompatible and one is reinforced and the other punished or not reinforced. Whether a stimulus is reinforcing depends on the individual, time, place, context In addition to reinforcers and punishers there are discriminative stimuli. These are stimuli that are present when the behavior is reinforced (physical surroundings, one’s own feelings, one’s own and others’ spoken words. Social reinforcers delivered through normative statements are significant discriminative stimuli. Discriminative stimuli that typically accompany reinforcement or punishment signal actors to expect reinforcement or punishment. Discriminative have no independent reinforcing value but do increase or decrease the probability of behavior recurring. APPLICATION TO DEVIANT BEHAVIOR Deviant behavior is learned both in nonsocial situations that are reinforcing or discriminative and through that social interaction in which the behavior of other persons is reinforcing or discriminative for such behavior. The principal part of the learning of deviant behavior occurs in those groups which comprise of control the individual's major source of reinforcements. The learning of deviant behavior, including specific techniques, attitudes and avoidance procedures, is a function of the effective and available reinforcers and the existing reinforcement contingencies. The specific class of behavior which is learned and its frequency of occurrence are a function of the reinforcers which are effective and available, and the deviant or nondeviant direction of the norms, rules, and definitions which in the past have accompanied the reinforcement. The probability that a person will commit deviant behavior is increased in the presence of normative statements, definitions, and verbalizations which have acquired discriminative value for behavior in the process of differential reinforcement of such behavior over conforming behavior. Types of discriminative stimuli that facilitate deviant behavior
The strength of deviant behavior is a direct function of the amount, frequency, and probability of its reinforcement. The type or organization of deviance is important in so far as it affects the source, amount, and scheduling of reinforcement.
HOMOSEXUALITY Generic Sexual Behavior Control of sexual behavior everywhere is linked to the structure of relationships and customs surrounding marriage and kinship Universal institutional priority is given to heterosexual behavior between adults within marriage Only unbridled and unprincipled sexual promiscuity is universally condemned These broad parameters of control leave great room for diversity of sexual behavior and of designation of sexual deviance Learning Sexual Behavior Physiological ability to be sexually aroused and obtain orgasm are inborn but most aspects of sexual behavior are learned Only some of all possible sexual stimule are socially valued. Social control and conventional sex training are meant to insure that objects to which people learn to respond sexually and methods of sexual gratification they learn to prefer are within socially acceptable limits Culture provides differential availability of sexual stimuli and thus affects the probability certain actions have of being sexually reinforced. Social rewards are set up for reaction to acceptable sexual objects and employment of approved methods. Punishment or ignoring of disapproved objects and methods They are more likely to be suggested verbally and through imitation as a way of gaining sexual pleasure The reinforcement of intrinsic physiological pleasure is intensified by social reinforcement There is less chance that positive reinforcement will be offset by adverse social reaction Social Learning in Gender Identification and Sex Role Behavior Socialization is the most significant way society directs sexual behavior Whether individual acts and identifies self as male or female is primarily determined by the sex roles to which they are assigned and learn to play The high correlation between behavioral patterns and biological sex is based on the fact that others use physical signs to define and react to individuals as male or female Parents very early distinguish between and react differently to boys and girls Initial socialization and later social controls are effective enough to guarantee majority heterosexuality
Sexual socialization may lead to deviation in two ways
NEUTRALIZATION THEORY GRESHAM SYKES AND DAVID MATZA Conventional and deviant beliefs are held simultaneously by almost everyone. While certain groups may be influenced by one more than the other, both determine behavior to a considerable degree. Deviance does not reflect attitudes and values that conflict with those of conventional society. Deviance is the product of learned justifications that situationally and temporarily neutralize internalized conventional attitudes and values that serve as inner controls Conventional norms are relatively flexible and loose. Various justifications are accepted by society for occasional violations of social norms. Even some violations of law can be legally justified (age, self defense, necessity, insanity, lack of criminal intent) Deviants continue to recognize the legitimacy and moral rightness of the conventional social order. They simply extend society’s acceptable justifications for the violation of societal norms. Neutralization techniques counteract feelings of guilt and preserve self-concept TECHNIQUES OF NEUTRALIZATION Excuses -- Accounts that admit the inappropriateness of the behavior while denying full responsibility
Justifications -- Accounts that emphasize the positive aspects of actions in certain circumstances
TRAVIS HIRSCHI Individuals do not learn to become deviant, they learn not to become deviant. Deviance is most likely when bonds to society are weak. Individuals are likely to engage in deviance if they have few countervailing attachments when the invitation for deviance is presented. Four Types of Bonds Promoting Conformity
Commitment
Involvement
Belief
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