Table 1. Types of Social Action and Applicable Validity Claims
    Validity Claims 
    Completeness  Truthfulness  Sincerity  Clarity, Comprehensibility  Contextuality, Appropriateness  Efficiency  Effectiveness 
Social 
Action 
Types		 Instrumental
Action		         Does Apply  Does Apply  Does Apply 
Communicative Action Does Apply  Does Apply    Does Apply  Can Apply     
Discursive
Action		   Can Apply  Can Apply  Does Apply  Does Apply     
Strategic Action     Can Apply    Does Apply  Can Apply  Can Apply 
 

 
 
Table 2. Comparison of Three Definitions of Communication Richness
  Social cues (such as facial expressions, body language, and tone of voice)... When the number of social cues increases (or decreases)...   When determining whether or not communication richness is present, researchers focus on... 
  ... are necessary to maximize communication richness. ...can contribute to, but are not necessary to maximize, communication richness. Communication richness can readily occur even in the total absence of social cues. ...the communication richness correspondingly increases (or decreases). ...there is not necessarily any corresponding change in the communication richness. ....features of the process of communication (such as the number of social cues and the capacity of the medium). ...whether or not mutual understanding (one person’s coming to understand what another person means) occurs. ....whether or not the listener or reader critiques the validity or rightness of what is communicated to her in the first place and, if needed, emancipates herself from distorted communications.
Communication richness from...  

...the positivist perspective in IRT’s conduit metaphor:

 X    X    X     
Communication richness from...  

...the interpretive perspective in the hermeneutic approach of Lee (1994):

      X    X    X   
Communication richness from..  

...this study’s CST perspective:

   X    X    X  X 

  
 
Table 3. The Complete Set of Empirical Material for Investigation
Empirical Material from HCP, Inc. (Markus, 1994)* 
mess. no.  date/ 
time		 from  to  text 
027  7/31 
16:30		 Mike  Ted  We are not adhering to the state law that requires payment w/i [within] 30 days unless proper notification is given of valid delays.
124  8/6 
16:23		 Ted  Sheila, Mike  Sheila, I presume you are aware that the state of ... requires that we pay within thirty days. The [branch] is reporting that we are not adhering to this. Do you have a system in place to keep track of this? Is there any information you need from us? Please let me know? Thnaks! Ted
138  8/6 
17:54		 Mike  Ted  Thank you thank you thank you
143  8/6 
20:03		 Sheila  Ted, Mike  Ted, yes, we were aware of the 30 day requirement. We look at this everyweek to insure compliance. The only exceptions should be ... . Will give you an aging [accounting report] tomorrow. Sheila
147  8/6 
20:13		 Mike  Ted  Ted, something is wrong. I am not saying Sheila is not correct, allI [all I] am saying is that you and I are signing a lot of second and third requests as priority processing and Kathy [one of Mike’s subordinates] says ... and Kathy is usually not wrong about this type of thing. Could it be that the problem is that claims are just not getting loged [logged] in upoo [upon] receipt? In my auditing days ... we found this to be commonwhen reports showed "all ok"?
148  8/6 
20:21		 Mike  Ted  Ted, the more I think about this, the more it bothers me, just look at all of the recent 2nd and 3rd requests and all of the over 60days follouwps from Kathy. I am going to have Kathy summarise the last 60 days. I will not indicate toKathy the specifics of why I am requesting. This could be a serious company wide problem. Will you check (when ypur [you] receive your aging) with Sheila to see if they have claims in hourse that do/are not reflected in her aging. Thanks. 
151  8/6  

21:16

 Ted  Sheila  Sheila, I dont agree [with Mike] that is [claims are being] received but not entered, although it couldbe, youwould know. i tend to think some of these are ap [accounts payable] problems, we will have to look at what they [Mike and Kathy] can send us for examples. the way i look at it we are lookoinga t a problem that might be there proactively. we will look and see if we can find a problem or at least come to agreement on status, will keep youpsoted [you posted].  

  

{Note: Ted forwards copies of 147 and 148 when sending 151.}
161  8/6  

21:49

 Sheila  Direct Subordinate  FYI [with previous messages attached]  

  

{Note: Sheila forwards copies of 124, 143, 147, 148, and 151 when sending 161.}
162  8/6  

22:20

 Sheila  Ted  Ted, given the additional explanation....and the fact that I agree, Kathy is seldom wrong....I will see what I can see from this end. I['m] sure none of us want another $14,000 interest charge! Sheila
 
*Markus states (pp. 516-517): "The messages have been reproduced with only minor omissions and with actual spelling and typing errors. Proper names have been changed." Square braces, [ ], contain Markus' additions. The other braces, { }, contain additions by the authors of this study. All omissions ("…") appear in Markus' own presentation of the messages. 

Markus offers the following descriptions of Ted, Mike, and Sheila (p. 513): "Ted Josephs (a pseudonym) was one of eight Regional Vice Presidents (RVP) who reported directly to the CEO of HCP. Ted was responsible for approximately 400 employees in three remote districts located as far as 2,500 miles from Headquarters. In this position, he had the authority and responsibility to understand the organization as a whole... Ted was one of the first occupants of the RVP position when it was established three years prior to data collection. According to those I interviewed at HCP, his superiors, peers, and subordinates regard him as an excellent manager."  

Markus also states (pp. 516-517): "In his weekly report for the week prior to the message sample, Mike, one of Ted's direct subordinates, reported that HCP appeared not to be in compliance with a state regulation in his jurisdiction. This obviously important issue fell within the organizational purview of HCP's VP of Customer Service (Sheila). Mike's position in the organization was such that he could not approach Sheila directly with his concerns, but had to rely on his superior to do it for him. After reading Mike's weekly report and directing his assistant to file it, Ted sent message #124 to the VP of Customer Service with a copy to Mike." 
 
 
 
  
  
 
Table 3a. The Message Set for Sheila at time 16:23
mess. no.  date/ 
time		 from   to   text 
124  8/6  

16:23

 Ted  Sheila, Mike  Sheila, I presume you are aware that the state of ... requires that we pay within thirty days. The [branch] is reporting that we are not adhering to this. Do you have a system in place to keep track of this? Is there any information you need from us? Please let me know? Thnaks! Ted
  
  
 
Table 3b. The Message Set for Sheila at time 21:16
mess. no.  date/ 
time		 from   to   text 
124  8/6  

16:23

 Ted  Sheila, Mike  Sheila, I presume you are aware that the state of ... requires that we pay within thirty days. The [branch] is reporting that we are not adhering to this. Do you have a system in place to keep track of this? Is there any information you need from us? Please let me know? Thnaks! Ted
143  8/6  

20:03

 Sheila  Ted, Mike  Ted, yes, we were aware of the 30 day requirement. We look at this everyweek to insure compliance. The only exceptions should be ... . Will give you an aging [accounting report] tomorrow. Sheila
147  8/6  

20:13

 Mike  Ted  Ted, something is wrong. I am not saying Sheila is not correct, allI [all I] am saying is that you and I are signing a lot of second and third requests as priority processing and Kathy [one of Mike’s subordinates] says ... and Kathy is usually not wrong about this type of thing. Could it be that the problem is that claims are just not getting loged [logged] in upoo [upon] receipt? In my auditing days ... we found this to be commonwhen reports showed "all ok"?
148  8/6  

20:21

 Mike  Ted  Ted, the more I think about this, the more it bothers me, just look at all of the recent 2nd and 3rd requests and all of the over 60days follouwps from Kathy. I am going to have Kathy summarise the last 60 days. I will not indicate toKathy the specifics of why I am requesting. This could be a serious company wide problem. Will you check (when ypur [you] receive your aging) with Sheila to see if they have claims in hourse that do/are not reflected in her aging. Thanks. 
151  8/6  

21:16

 Ted  Sheila  Sheila, I dont agree [with Mike] that is [claims are being] received but not entered, although it couldbe, youwould know. i tend to think some of these are ap [accounts payable] problems, we will have to look at what they [Mike and Kathy] can send us for examples. the way i look at it we are lookoinga t a problem that might be there proactively. we will look and see if we can find a problem or at least come to agreement on status, will keep youpsoted [you posted].  

  

{Note: Ted forwards copies of 147 and 148 when sending 151.}
 
  
 
Table 3c. The Message Set for Sheila at Time 21:49
mess. no.  date/ time  from   to  text 
124  8/6  

16:23

 Ted  Sheila, Mike  Sheila, I presume you are aware that the state of ... requires that we pay within thirty days. The [branch] is reporting that we are not adhering to this. Do you have a system in place to keep track of this? Is there any information you need from us? Please let me know? Thnaks! Ted
143  8/6  

20:03

 Sheila  Ted, Mike  Ted, yes, we were aware of the 30 day requirement. We look at this everyweek to insure compliance. The only exceptions should be ... . Will give you an aging [accounting report] tomorrow. Sheila
147  8/6  

20:13

 Mike  Ted  Ted, something is wrong. I am not saying Sheila is not correct, allI [all I] am saying is that you and I are signing a lot of second and third requests as priority processing and Kathy [one of Mike’s subordinates] says ... and Kathy is usually not wrong about this type of thing. Could it be that the problem is that claims are just not getting loged [logged] in upoo [upon] receipt? In my auditing days ... we found this to be commonwhen reports showed "all ok"?
148  8/6  

20:21

 Mike  Ted  Ted, the more I think about this, the more it bothers me, just look at all of the recent 2nd and 3rd requests and all of the over 60days follouwps from Kathy. I am going to have Kathy summarise the last 60 days. I will not indicate toKathy the specifics of why I am requesting. This could be a serious company wide problem. Will you check (when ypur [you] receive your aging) with Sheila to see if they have claims in hourse that do/are not reflected in her aging. Thanks. 
151  8/6  

21:16

 Ted  Sheila  Sheila, I dont agree [with Mike] that is [claims are being] received but not entered, although it couldbe, youwould know. i tend to think some of these are ap [accounts payable] problems, we will have to look at what they [Mike and Kathy] can send us for examples. the way i look at it we are lookoinga t a problem that might be there proactively. we will look and see if we can find a problem or at least come to agreement on status, will keep youpsoted [you posted].  

  

{Note: Ted forwards copies of 147 and 148 when sending 151.}
161  8/6  

21:49

 Sheila  Direct Subordinate  FYI [with previous messages attached]  

  

{Note: Sheila forwards copies of 124, 143, 147, 148, and 151 when sending 161.}